Even if a circular economy was possible, a steadily growing economy would still rely on the input of new materials because the "loop" itself is constantly growing. Recycling is strictly limited in its ability to provide resources for an expanding material economy.⁶ Furthermore, recycling processes generally still require a significant amount of energy and virgin raw materials.⁷

Additionally, many modern products are too complex to be recycled.⁸ For speciality metals that are crucial components for key emerging technologies, recycling rates to the order of 1 % provide little hope. Trends of miniaturisation and integration make this challenge even more severe.^8,9

Most materials can only be recycled into the same products a couple of times. Product design, recycling technologies and the thermodynamics of separation limit the reuse of materials substantially. Even common bulk metals such as iron, copper, or nickel are only reused two or three times before being unusable.¹⁰

Evidence Collection